How postcolonial literature change our mind discourse?

Postcolonialism:

Postcolonialism or postcolonial studies is an academic discipline that analyzes, explains, and responds to the cultural legacy of colonialism and imperialism. Postcolonialism speaks about the human consequences of external control and economic exploitation of a native people and its lands. 

So, the term ‘postcolonialism’ is not the same as ‘after colonialism’ ,as if colonial values are no longer to be reckoned with. It does not define a radically new historical era, nor does it herald a brave new world where all the ills of the colonial past have been cured. Rather, ‘postcolonialism’ recognises both historical continuity and change.

Postcolonial theory:

Postcolonial theory addresses the following issues:

 Colonialism’s strategies of representation of the native.

 The epistemological underpinnings of colonial projects (colonial histories, anthropology, area studies, cartography)

 The feminization, marginalization and dehumanization of the native.

 The psychological effects of colonialism on both the colonizer and the colonized.

 The role of apparatuses such as education, English literature, historiography and art and architecture in the execution of the colonial project.

How postcolonial Literature change our mind discourse:

 After studing postcolonial literature, our perspective about the West totally changed. Before the understanding of postcolonial literature, we think that Europe is a well manner country and full of civilization. We have a great desire to go and live there.

 But when we read postcolonial literature with the perspective of postcolonial theorist like Edward Said, Gayatri Spivak and Homi K. Bhabha, we come to know the reality.

 Postcolonial theorist exposed the mask of West. For a long time, they ruled over Asia, Africa and many other poor countries on the name of civilization.

 They entered in these countries with the slogan that we came here for your civilization. But postcolonial theorist exposed their reality. They have their own lust of power. They gathered money, ivory and gold from these countries and back to their homes. They destroyed their ancestors literature by calling it poor literature.

 They imposed their own culture, values, language and power on these countries with power and dismantle their original culture and values.

 After all, we can clearly understand their Delima after reading the theory of Homi K. Bhabha, Gayatri Spivak and Edward Said.

Key theorists:

 Edward Said

 Homi k. Bhabha

 Gayatri Spivak

 Edward Said:

To describe the us-and-them "binary social relation" with which Western Europe intellectually divided the world—into the "Occident" and the "Orient"—the cultural critic Edward Said developed the denotations and connotations of the term Orientalism (an art-history term for Western depictions and the study of the Orient). This is the concept that the cultural representations generated with the us-and-them binary relation are social constructs, which are mutually constitutive and cannot exist independent of each other, because each exists on account of and for the other.

Orientalism(1978):

Edward Said’s “Orientalism” refers to the sum of west’s representation of the East. It is the production of ideas, knowledge and opinions about the orient--ideas which were preliminary to governance, military conquest and political control over the geographical territory of the orient. Orientalist knowledge came first, political control later. 

As Said outs it:

“Orientalism was ultimately a political vision of reality whose structure promoted the difference between the familiar (Europe, West, "us") and the strange (the 

Orient, the East, "them”).

Shape of Orientalism:

 Orientalism construct  binary divisions.

 Orientalism is a western fantasy.

 Orientalism is legitimating.

 There is ‘latent’ and ‘menifest’

Gayatri Spivak:

In establishing the Postcolonial definition of the term Subaltern, the philosopher and theoretician Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak cautioned against assigning an over-broad connotation; that:

“subaltern is not just a classy word for "oppressed", for The Other, for somebody who's not getting a piece of the pie. . . . In postcolonial terms, everything that has limited or no access to the cultural imperialism is subaltern---. . .  so let them speak, use the hegemonic discourse. They should not call themselves subaltern”.

— Interview with Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak: New Nation Writers Conference in South Africa (1992) 

 Known for harnessing deconstructive critical thought, feminism and Marxism for postcolonial purposes.

 Can the Subaltern speak—spivak worries about the inability of subaltern to represent themselves.

 She argues that since the subaltern can not speak for herself because the ‘double bind’ of colonialism and patriarchy silence her, any intellectual project must seek to make visible the position of the marginalized.

 She also argues that the appropriation of the marginalized into single ‘discipline’ such as postcolonial studies condemns them to perpetual marginality, always the subject the subject of somebody else’s discourse.

Homi k. Bhabha:

 Bhabha believes that colonial discourse is conflictual, ambivalent and full of contra dictions.

 The contradictory psychie relations between the colonizer and colonized moving, for Bhabha, between fear and desire of the other—prevent any stable and unchanging identities for the colonizer and colonized.

 The colonizer can construct his identity only through the stereotypes of the other i.e, the identity of the colonizer is dependent upon the relationship with the oppositional native/other.

 Steorotypes indicate a fractures nature of colonial power. 

Key Terms in Bhabha’s theory:

 Ambivalence:

Ambivalence of colonial discourse can be seen in contradictory representation of the colonized. Colonized subject is simultaneously beyond comprehension and yet completely controllable as a subject of colonial power.

 Mimicry:

Bhabha’s concept of mimicry elaborates the unstable nature of colonial discourse. Colonial power requires that native should adopt the forms and habits of colonial master.

 Hybridity:

Hybridity is fundamentally associated with the emergence of post-colonial discourse and its critiques of cultural imperialism. It is the second stage in the history of hybridity, characterized by literature and theory that study the effects of mixture (hybridity) upon identity and culture. The principal theorists of hybridity are Homi k. Bhabha, Néstor García Canclini, Stuart Hall, Gayatri Spivak, and Paul Gilroy, whose works respond to the multi-cultural awareness that emerged in the early 1990s.

Conclusion:

To conclude we can say that postcolonialism realized that even though the colonial era has finished yet, but the practices have not come to an end and now has turned it face into neo-colonialism.

In postcolonial perspective, literary works emerged to unveil subjugation, injustice, violence, discrimination, inequality, to sound the marginal and subaltern people, so that from postcolonial productions yielded social and political products.

Postcolonial Literature is a kind of literary work which describes realistic experience of what really happens around uss and to remind don’t just shut our eyes. It is believe that one vice could lead into a betterment for our future and society.

Types of Poems

●Define poetry?

 Poetry is a form of literature that uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of language --- such as phonaesthetics, sound symbolism, and metre -- to evoke meanings in addition to, or in place of, the prosaic ostensible meaning.  

●What is an aubade?

 Aubade is a love poem welcoming or lamenting the arrival of the dawn. One of the finest aubades in literature occurs in Act II, Scene III, of Shakespeare's play Cymbeline. It begins with the famous words, "Hark, hark! The lark at heaven's gate sings". Donne's "The Sun Rising" is also an aubade. 

●What is a ballad?

 A narrative poem, often of folk origin and intended to be sung, consisting of simple stanzas and usually having a refrain. The Anonymous medieval ballad, "Barbara Allan", exemplifies the genre. 

●What is a folk ballad?

Folk ballad is a song that it traditionally sung by the common people or a region and forms part of their culture. Folk ballads are anonymous and recount tragic, comic, or heroic stories with emphasis on a central dramatic event. Examples include "Barbara Allan" and "John Henry". 

● Define a carol?

 A carol is a hymn or poem often sung by a group, with an individual taking the changing stanzas and the group taking the burden or refrain. Examples include "The Burning Babe" and "The Twelve Days of Christmas" 

●What is a dramatic monologue?

A dramatic monologue is a poem in which an imagined speaker addresses a silent listener. It is a 'mono-drama in verse'. Examples include Robert Browning's "My Last Duchess" and T.S. Eliot's "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock".

●Define elegy?

 An elegy is a mournful, melancholic or plaintive poem, especially a funeral song of a lament for the dead. It usually ends in consolation. Examples include John Milton's "Lycidas" and W.H. Auden's "In Memory of W.B. Yeats". 

● Define an epic?

 An epic is a lengthy narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation narrated in elevated style. For example, Homer's "Iliad" is an epic. 

● What is a mock epic?

 A mock epic is a satire or parody that mocks common classical stereotypes or heroes and heroic literature. Typically, a mock epic either puts a fool in the role of the hero or exaggerates the heroic qualities to such a point that they become absurd. Examples include John Dryden's "Mac Flecknoe" and Alexander Pope's "The Rape of the Lock". 

●What is an epigram?

An epigram is a short, satirical and witty poem (statement) usually written as a couplet or quatrain but can also be a one lined phrase. It is a brief and forceful remark with a funny ending. Examples include Walter Savage Landor's "Dirce" and Ben Jonson's "On Gut". 

●What is an epithalamion?

 An epithalamion is a lyric ode in honour of a bride and bridegroom usually containing suggestive language and innuendo. Examples include Theocritus' "The 18th Idyll" and Edmund Spenser's "Epithalamion". 

●What is a hymn? 

 A hymn is a religious poem praising God or the divine, often sung. In English, the most popular hymns were written between the 17th and 19th centuries. Examples include Isaac Walts' "Our God, Our Help" and Charles Welsey's "My God! I Know, I Feel Thee Mine". 

●What is a lyric? 

 A lyric is a short poem which expresses personal emotions or feelings, often in a song-like style or form. It is typically written in the first person. Examples include John Clare's "I Hid My Love" and Louise Bogan's "Song for the Last Act". 

●Define an ode.?

An ode is a long, often elaborate stanzaic poem of varying line lengths and sometimes intricate rhyme schemes devoted to the praise of a person, animal, place, thing or idea. Examples include P.B. Shelley's "Ode to the West Wind" and John Keats' "Ode on a Grecian Urn". 

●What is a sonnet?

 A sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines using any of a number of formal rhyme schemes. In English, a sonnet has 3 quatrains followed by a couplet and ten syllables per line. (iambic pentameter). It usually expresses a single, complete thought, idea or sentiment. Examples include P.B. Shelley's "Ozymandias" and John Keats' "When I Have Fears".

By me a Pizza

Some Important literary terms in one line

Narrative
consisting of or characterized by the telling of a story
Character
an imaginary person represented in a work of fiction
Alliteration
use of the same consonant at the beginning of each word
Repetition
the continued use of the same word or word pattern
Apostrophe
an address to an absent or imaginary person
Ballad
a narrative poem of popular origin
Stanza
a fixed number of lines of verse forming a unit of a poem
Dialogue
the lines spoken by characters in drama or fiction
Rhyme
correspondence in the final sounds of two or more lines
Rhythm
alternation of stressed and unstressed elements in speech
Theme
a unifying idea that is a recurrent element in literary work
Symmetry
balance among the parts of something
Climax
the decisive moment in a novel or play
Denouement
the resolution of the main complication of a literary work
Plot
the story that is told, as in a novel, play, movie, etc.
Diction
the manner in which something is expressed in words
Elegy
a mournful poem; a lament for the dead
epic
a long narrative poem telling of a hero's deeds
Setting
the context and environment in which something is situated
Epithet
descriptive word or phrase
Figurative
not literal
Hyperbole
extravagant exaggeration
Exaggeration
the act of making something more noticeable than usual
Irony
incongruity between what might be expected and what occurs
Literal
limited to the explicit meaning of a word or text
Lyric
of or relating to poetry that expresses emotion
Metaphor
a figure of speech that suggests a non-literal similarity
Simile
a figure of speech expressing a resemblance between things
Oxymoron
conjoining contradictory terms
Paradox
a statement that contradicts itself
Pastoral
a literary work idealizing the rural life
Pathos
a quality that arouses emotions, especially pity or sorrow
Rhetoric
using language effectively to please or persuade
Satire
witty language used to convey insults or scorn
Soliloquy
a dramatic speech giving the illusion of unspoken reflection
Symbol
something visible that represents something invisible
Vignette
a brief literary description

Main Difference – Aristotle vs Shakespearean Tragedy

🌱Aristotelian tragedy and Shakespearean tragedy are two of the most important forms of tragedies when we study the evolution of tragedies. Although Shakespearean tragedies have been influenced by Aristotle’s concepts of tragedy, some differences can be noted between the two. The main difference between Aristotle and Shakespearean tragedy is the unity of plot; Aristotelian tragedy consists of a single central plot whereas Shakespearean tragedy consists of several interwoven subplots.

✨What is an Aristotle Tragady :

Aristotle’s Poetics is the earliest-surviving work of dramatic theory, and this work is a good source to examine Aristotle’s views on tragedy. According to Aristotle, a tragedy is characterized by seriousness. It represents or imitates the reality. Thus, it is an imitation of action and life, of happiness and misery.

🌷Aristotle describes six main elements of a tragedy:  plot, character, diction, thought, spectacle (scenic effect), and song composition. The plot was considered to be the most important out of these elements.

The plot must be a complete whole while containing a definite beginning, middle, and end. The plot also requires a single central theme where all elements are logically connected.

The plot of a tragedy usually revolves around a renowned and prosperous hero who faces a reversal fortune, particularly due to his own tragic flaw. The plot consists of two main elements: reversal, and recognition. Reversal occurs when a situation seems to be developing in one direction and then suddenly reverses in another direction. Oedipus’ investigation of the murder of Laius is an example of this element. Recognition is the point where the protagonist learns the truth of the situation or comes to a realization about himself or another character.

According to Aristotle, the aim of tragedy is to create catharsis – creating feelings of pity and fear in the spectators so as to  purge them of these emotions ensuring that they leave the theater feeling cleansed and uplifted. There is a sense of completeness in Aristotelian tragedies.

✨What is a Shakespearean Tragedy:

Shakespearean tragedies were also influenced by Greek tragedies. Some similarities can be noted between both Aristotle and Shakespearean tragedy.  Shakespearean tragedies also have a renowned or prosperous hero who experiences a reversal of fortune due to a tragic flaw. Macbeth, King Lear, Hamlet, Othello, Antony and Cleopatra are some of Shakespeare’s famous tragedies.  

🌷However, some differences can also be noted between Aristotle and Shakespearean tragedies. Shakespearean tragedies do not follow the unity of plot; Shakespeare interweaved many subplots into the play to make the plot more complicated and realistic. The protagonists in Shakespearean tragedies usually face a tragic death, not just a reversal of fortune. Moreover, these protagonists do not gain self- knowledge or recognize their flow like protagonists in Aristotelian tragedies.

The inclusion of comic scenes is another difference between Aristotle and Shakespearean tragedies. Aristotelian tragedies usually had a chorus which narrated the scenes that take place offstage and they also provided relief to the spectators. In Shakespearean tragedies, the chorus is replaced by comic scenes such as the porter’s scene in Macbeth.

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Shakespeare's most memorable quotes

*Hamlet*

Neither a borrower nor a lender be; for loan oft loses both itself and friend.”

Act 1, Scene 3

“The play ‘s the thing wherein I’ll catch the conscience of the king”

Act 2, Scene 2

“To be, or not to be; that is the question; Whether ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer; The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of troubles”

Act 3, Scene 1

“Alas, poor Yorick! I knew him, Horatio, a fellow of infinite jest, of most excellent fancy. He hath bore me on his back a thousand times, and now how abhorr’d in my imagination it is! My gorge rises at it..”

Act 5, Scene 1

*A Midsummer Night's Dream*

“The course of true love never did run smooth.”

Act 1, Scene 1

“Love looks not with the eyes, but with the mind, and therefore is winged Cupid painted blind”

Act 1, Scene 1

“My Oberon! What visions have I seen! Methought I was enamoured of an ass.”

Act 4, Scene 1

*Twelfth Night*

“If music be the food of love, play on.”

Act 1, Scene 1

“Be not afraid of greatness: some are born great, some achieve greatness and some have greatness thrust upon them.”

Act 2, Scene 5

“Love sought is good, but given unsought is better.”

Act 3 Scene 1

*As you like it*

“All the world’s a stage and all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts.”

Act 2, Scene 7

“Who ever loved that loved not at first sight?“

Act 3, Scene 5

“The fool doth think he is wise, but the wise man knows himself to be a fool.”

Act 5, Scene 1

*Merchant of Venice*

“Love is blind, and lovers cannot see, The pretty follies that themselves commit.”

Act 2, Scene 6

“All that glisters is not gold.”

Act 2, Scene 7

*Much Ado About Nothing*

“When you depart from me sorrow abides, and happiness takes his leave.”

Act 1, Scene 1

“Everyone can master a grief but he that has it”

Act 3, Scene 2

*Romeo and Juliet*

“But, soft! what light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun.”

Act 2, Scene 1

“Good night, good night! Parting is such sweet sorrow, That I shall say good night till it be morrow.”

Act 2, Scene 1

“What’s in a name? That which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet”

Act 2, Scene 2

*Henry V*

"Once more unto the breach, dear friends, once more, Or close the wall up with our English dead!"

Act 3, Scene 1

*Macbeth*

“By the pricking of my thumbs, Something wicked this way comes. Double, double toil and trouble; Fire burn, and cauldron bubble.”

Act 4, Scene 1

“Out, out, brief candle! Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player that struts and frets his hour upon the stage and then is heard no more: it is a tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing.”

Act 5, Scene 5

*Sonnet 18*

"Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate: Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, And summer's lease hath all too short a date"

*Richard II*

"This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle, This earth of majesty, this seat of Mars, This other Eden, demi-paradise, This fortress built by Nature for herself Against infection and the hand of war"

Act 2 , Scene 1

*Richard III*

“Now is the winter of our discontent, Made glorious summer by this sun of York”

Act 1, Scene 1

“A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!”

Act 5, Scene 4

*Love's Labour's Lost*

"They have been at a great feast of languages, and stolen the scraps."

Act 5, Scene 1

*The Tempest*

“Full fathom five thy father lies; Of his bones are coral made; Those are pearls that were his eyes: Nothing of him that doth fade ; But doth suffer a sea-change; Into something rich and strange.”

Act 1, Scene 2

“Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellows.”

Act 2, Scene 2

*Measure for Measure*

“Some rise by sin, and some by virtue fall”

Act 2, Scene 1

“The miserable have no other medicine but only hope”

Act 3, Scene 1

“What’s mine is yours, and what is yours is mine.”

Act 5, Scene 1.

*The Merry Wives of Windsor*

"Why, then the world's mine oyster, Which I with sword will open."

Act 2, Scene 2

*Othello*

"I will wear my heart upon my sleeve; For daws to peck at."

Act 1, Scene 1

*Julius Caesar*

“Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears; I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him”

Act 2, Scene 2

“When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept: Ambition should be made of sterner stuff”

Act 3, Scene 2

*Anthony and Cleopatra*

"My salad days, When I was green in judgment: cold in blood, To say as I said then! But, come, away; Get me ink and paper: He shall have every day a several greeting, Or I'll unpeople Egypt."

Act 1, Scene 5

*Henry IV, Part II*

"Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown"

Act 3, Scene 1

*King Lear*

"The worst is not, So long as we can say, 'This is the worst.'"

Act 4, Scene 1

Indirect speech for exclamatory and imperative sentences.

Indirect speech of imperative sentence.

A sentence which expresses command, request, advice or suggestion is called imperative sentence.

For example,

     •  Open the door.

     •  Please help me.

     •  Learn your lesson.

To change such sentences into indirect speech, the word “ordered” or “requested” or “advised” or “suggested” or “forbade” or “not to do” is added to reporting verb depending upon nature of imperative sentence in reported speech.

Examples.

           Direct speech: He said to me, “please help me”

           Indirect Speech: He requested me to help him.

           Direct speech: She said to him, “you should work hard for exam”

           Indirect Speech: He suggested him to work hard for exam.

           Direct speech: They said to him, “do not tell a lie”

           Indirect Speech: They said to him not to tell a lie.

           Direct speech: He said, “open the door”

           Indirect Speech: He ordered to open the door.

           Direct speech: The teacher said to student, “do not waste time”

           Indirect Speech: The teacher advised the students not to waste time.

           Direct speech: He said, “please give me glass of water”

           Indirect Speech: He requested to give him a glass of water.

           Direct speech: Doctor said to me, “Do not smoke”

           Indirect Speech: Doctor advised me not to smoke.

           Direct speech: The teacher said to him, “Get out”

           Indirect Speech: The teacher ordered him to get out.

 

Indirect speech of exclamatory sentences.

Sentence which expresses state of joy or sorrow or wonder is called exclamatory sentence.

For example.

             •  Hurrah! We won the match.

             •  Alas! I failed the test.

             •  Wow! What a nice shirt it is.

To change such sentences, the words “exclaimed with joy” or “exclaimed with sorrow” or “exclaimed with wonder” is added in the reporting verb depending upon the nature of exclamatory sentence in indirect speech.

Examples.

     Direct speech: He said, “Hurrah! I won a prize”

     Indirect Speech: He exclaimed with joy that he had won a prize.

     Direct speech: She said, “Alas! I failed in exam”

     Indirect Speech: She exclaimed with sorrow that she failed in the exam.

     Direct speech: John said, “Wow! What a nice shirt it is”

     Indirect Speech: John exclaimed with wonder that it was a nice shirt.

     Direct speech: She said, “Hurrah! I am selected for the job”

     Indirect Speech: She exclaimed with joy that she was selected for the job.

     Direct speech: He said, “Oh no! I missed the train”

     Indirect Speech: He exclaimed with sorrow that he had missed the train.

     Direct speech: They said, “Wow! What a pleasant weather it is”

     Indirect Speech:  They exclaimed with wonder that it was a pleasant weather.

LIST OF NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS IN ENGLISH LITERATURE

📎1. Rudyard Kipling - 1907

📎2. William Butler Yeats - 1923

📎3. George Bernard Shaw - 1925

📎4. Sinclair Lewis - 1930

📎5. John Galsworthy - 1932

📎6. Eugene O'Neill - 1936

📎7. Pearl S. Buck - 1938

📎8. T.S. Eliot - 1948

📎9. William Faulkner - 1949

📎10. Bertrand Russell - 1950

📎11. Sir Winston Churchill  - 1953

📎12. Ernest Hemingway - 1954

📎13. John Steinbeck - 1962

📎14. Samuel Beckett - 1969

📎15. Patrick White - 1973

📎16. Saul Bellow -  1976

📎17. William Golding - 1983

📎18. Akinwande Oluwole Soyinka -1986

📎19.  Joseph Brodsky - 1987

📎20. Nadine Gordimer - 1991

📎21. Derek Walcott - 1992

📎22 Toni Morrison - 1993

📎23. Seamus Heaney - 1995

📎24. Vidiadhar Surajprasad Naipaul - 2001

📎25. John Maxwell Coetzee - 2003

📎26. Harold Pinter - 2005

📎27. Doris Lessing - 2007

📎28. Alice Munro - 2013

Important terms in Literature

1.  Comedy:-is a play written to entertain its audience, ends happily.

2.  Classical:-means any writing that conforms to the rules and modes of old Greek and Latin writings.

3. Antithesis: -is contrast or polarity in meaning.

4. Allusion: -is a reference to an idea, place, person or text existing outside the literary work.

5. Allegory: - is a literary work that has an implied meaning.

6. Alliteration:-the repetition of a consonant in two or more words.

7. Ballad: -is a song which tells a story.

8. Biography: -is the history of a person’s life by one else.

9. Blank Verse: -Verses written in iambic pentameter without any rhyme pattern are called blank verse.

10.Auto-Biography: -is the history of one’s life written by one self.

11.Act: - is the major division of a drama.

12. Canto:-is a sub-division of an epic or a narrative poem comparable to a chapter in a novel.

13. Chorus:-is a group of singers who stand alongside the stage in a drama.

14. Catharsis:-is emotional release of pity and fear that the tragic incidences in a tragedy arouse to an audience.

15. Comic relief:-a humorous scene in a tragedy to eliminate the tragic effect from audience.

16. Couplet:-To lines of the same material length usually found in Shakespearean sonnets.

17. Catastrophe:-Catastrophe is the downfall of the protagonist in a tragedy.

18. Didactic:-is a literary work which aims at teaching and instructing its readers.

19. Dirge:-is a short functional term.

20. Diction:-is the selection of words in literary work.

21. Dialect:-is the language of particular district; class or a group of people.

22. Drammatical Monologue:-In a poem when a single person speaks along with or without an audience is called drammatical monologue. Example “My last Duchess”-----Br

owning.

23. Difference between drama and novel:-A drama is meant to be performed whereas a novel is meant to be read.

24. Difference between stanza and paragraph:-A stanza contains verses whereas a paragraph contains prosaic lines.

25. Epic:-is a long narrative poem composed on a grand scale and is exalted style. Example “Paradise Lost”-------Milton.

26. Epilogue:-is the concluding part of a longer poem or a novel or a drama.

27. Fable:-is a brief story illustrating a moral.

28. Farce:-A form of low comedy designed to provoke laughter.

29. Foot:-A basic unit of meter.

30. Fiction:-A fiction is an imaginative narrative in prose e.g. Lord of the fly—by Golding.

31. Elegy:- is a poem mourning to the death of an individual or a lament for a tragic event.

32. Genre:-means category or types of literature-epic, ode, ballad etc.

33. Hyperbole:-An overstatement or exaggeration.

34. Image:-is the mental picture connected with metaphor, smile and symbol.

35. Limerick:-is a short poem of a five-line stanza rhyming aaba.

36. Lyric:-A lyric is a short poem expressing a simple mood. It is usually personal and musical e.g. Keats’s odes.

37. Linguistic:-is the scientific and systematic study of language.

38. Melodrama:-A highly sensational drama with happy ending.

Example ‘The Spanish Tragedy’ –Kyd.

39. Metaphysical Poetry:-Meta means beyond and physical is related to body . . . . . .

40. Mock-epic:-It is a long satirical poem dealing with a trivial theme. Example: “The rape of the lock”-Alexander Pope.

41. Metaphor:-A metaphor is an implicit comparison between two different things.

42. Metre:-The recurrence of similar stress pattern in some lines of a poem.

43. Novel:-is a long prose narrative fiction with plot, characters, etc.

44. Novelette:-is longer than a short story and shorter than a novel.

45. Ode:-is a long narrative poem of varying, line length dealing with serious subject matter.

46. Objectivity:-We have objectivity in a literary piece when the author focuses on an object from broadened point of view.

47. Octave:-is the firs part of Italian sonnet.

48. Oxymoron:-is apparently a physical contrast which oddly makes sense on a deeper level.

49. Prologue:-is the beginning part of a novel or a play or a novel.

50. Prose:-Any material that is not written in a regular meter like a poetry.

51. Prosody:-Prosody is the mechanics or grammar of verse.

52. Protagonist:-Protagonist is the main character in a literary work

53. Plot:-The arrangement of incidents is called plot.

54. Pun:-A pun is playing with words.

55. Periods of English literature:-The Anglo-Saxon, Middle English Renaissance, Restoration, Neoclassical Romantic,

Victorian, Modern, Post-Modern.

56. Romanticism:-was a literary movement. It stands Opposite to reason and focuses on emotion.

57. Rhetoric:-Rhetoric is the art of persuasive argument through writing.

58. Symbol:-A symbol is anything that stands for something else.

59. Sonnet:-is a lyric poem consisting of fourteen rhymed lines dealing with a lofty theme.

60. Satire:-is ridiculing the vices and follies of an individual or a society with a corrective design. E.g. “The rape of the lock”---Pope.

Different Types of Poems

📌1. Sonnet

Sonnets are practically synonymous with Shakespeare, but there are actually two different kinds of this famous poetic form. Having originated in 13th century Italy, the sonnet usually deals with love and has two common forms: the Petrarchan (named for its famous practitioner, the poet Petrarch) and the Shakespearean (also known as the English sonnet). Each type contains 14 lines but comes with its own set of rules.

🍀Petrarchan Sonnet

Characteristics and Rules:

• 2 stanzas

• Presents an argument, observation, or question in the first 8 lines

• Turn (or “volta”) between 8th and 9thlines

• Second stanza answers the question or issue posed in the first

• Rhyme Scheme: ABBA, ABBA, CDECDE

🍀Shakespearean Sonnet

• 3 quatrains (4 lines each) and a couplet (2 lines)

• Couplet usually forms a conclusion

• Rhyme scheme: ABAB, CDCD, EFEF, GG

📌2. Villanelle

Villanelles have even more specific rules than sonnets. Luckily, many of the lines are repetitions, but this means you’ll have to take care to make those lines meaningful.

🍀Villanelle Characteristics and Rules

• 19 lines

• 5 stanzas of 3 lines each

• 1 closing stanza of 4 lines

• Rhyme scheme: ABA, ABA, ABA, ABA, ABA, ABAA

• Line 1 repeats in lines 6, 12, and 18

• Line 3 repeats in lines 9, 15, and 19

🍀Examples of Villanelles

“The Waking” by Theodore Roethke

“Do not go gentle into that good night” by Dylan Thomas

📌3. Haiku

The haiku originated in 17th century Japan. Although they usually refer to nature, the only real rule applies to the number of syllables in each line, so you can let your imagination run wild with this one.

🍀Haiku Characteristics and Rules

• 3 lines

• Line 1 contains 5 syllables

• Line 2 contains 7 syllables

• Line 3 contains 5 syllables

🍀Example of Haiku

Matsuo Bashō, “By the Old Temple”:

By the old temple,

peach blossoms;

a man treading rice.

📌4. Ekphrastic Poems

Ekphrastic poems don’t really have specific rules, but they do speak of another work of art.

Ekphrasis comes from the Greek word for “description,” and that’s exactly what this poem should do: vividly describe a painting, statue, photograph, or story. One famous example is found in the Iliad, where Homer refers to Achilles’ shield.

🍀Examples of Ekphrastic Poetry

Tyehimba Jess, “Hagar in the Wilderness”

Rebecca Wolff, “Ekphrastic”

📌5. Concrete Poems

Concrete poetry is designed to take a particular shape or form on the page. Poets can manipulate spacing or layout to emphasize a theme or important element in the text, or sometimes they can take the literal shape of their subjects.

🍀Example of Concrete Poetry

“The Altar” by George Herbert was intended to resemble a church altar.

📌6. Elegy

The elegy is another type of poem that lacks particular rules, but it usually is written in mourning following a death. They can be written for a particular person, or treat the subject of loss more generally.

🍀Example of an Elegy

Walt Whitman’s “O Captain, My Captain,” which Whitman wrote following the assassination of Abraham Lincoln

📌7. Epigram

Epigrams are short, witty, and often satirical poems that usually take the form of a couplet or quatrain (2-4 lines in length).

🍀Example of an Epigram

An example of this wit is provided by Samuel Taylor Coleridge:

Sir, I admit your general rule,

That every poet is a fool,

But you yourself may serve to show it,

That every fool is not a poet.

Epigrams are not exclusive to poetry. They are also commonly used as literary devices and in speeches. John F. Kennedy’s famous quote, “Mankind must put an end to war, or war will put an end to mankind” is one such example.

📌8. Limerick

Limericks are humorous poems that have a more distinct rhythm. Their subject matter is sometimes crude, but always designed to offer laughs.

🍀Limerick Characteristics and Rules

• 5 lines

• 2 longer lines (usually 7-10 syllables)

• 2 shorter lines (usually 5-7 syllables)

• 1 closing line to bring the joke home (7-10 syllables)

• Rhyme scheme: AABBA

🍀Example of Limerick

A wonderful bird is the pelican,

His bill can hold more than his beli-can.

He can take in his beak

Food enough for a week

But I’m damned if I see how the heli-can.

—Dixon Lanier Merritt

📌9. Ballad

Ballads usually take a narrative form to tell us stories. They are often arranged in quatrains, but the form is loose enough that writers can easily modify it.

🍀Ballad Characteristics and Rules

• Typically arranged in groups of 4 lines

• Rhyme scheme: ABAB or ABCB

🍀Example of Ballad

“Annabel Lee” by Edgar Allan Poe (first two stanzas)

📌10. Epitaph

An epitaph is much like an elegy, only shorter. Epitaphs commonly appear on gravestones, but they can also be humorous. There are no specific rules for epitaphs or their rhyme schemes.

🍀Examples of Epitaphs

From William Shakespeare’s gravestone:

Good friend for Jesus sake forbeare,

To dig the dust enclosed here.

Blessed be the man that spares these stones,

And cursed be he that moves by bones.

“Epitaph” by Edna St. Vincent Millay

Heap not on this mound

Roses that she loved so well:

Why bewilder her with roses,

That she cannot see or smell?

She is happy where she lies

With the dust upon her eyes.

📌11. Ode

Odes address a specific person, thing, or event. The ode is believed to have been invented by the ancient Greeks, who would sing their odes. Modern odes follow an irregular pattern and are not required to rhyme.

🍀Example of an Ode

“Ode to the West Wind” by Percy Bysshe Shelley

Scatter, as from an unextinguish’d hearth

Ashes and sparks, my words among mankind!

Be through my lips to unawaken’d earth

The trumpet of a prophecy! O Wind,

If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?

📌12. Free Verse

Free verse is exactly what its  name implies. There are no rules, and writers can do whatever they choose: to rhyme or not, to establish any rhythm. Free verse is often used in contemporary poetry.

Beowulf

Beowulf.

Beowulf is an Old English epic poem consisting of 3182 alliterative lines. It is the oldest surviving long poem in Old English and is commonly cited as one of the most important works of Old English literature.

 It was written in England some time between the 8th and the early 11th century.

The author was an anonymous Anglo-Saxon poet, referred to by scholars as the "Beowulf poet".

Summary:

King Hrothgar of Denmark, a descendant of the great king Shield Sheafson, enjoys a prosperous and successful reign. He builds a great mead-hall, called Heorot, where his warriors can gather to drink, receive gifts from their lord, and listen to stories sung by the scops, or bards. But the jubilant noise from Heorot angers Grendel, a horrible demon who lives in the swamplands of Hrothgar’s kingdom. Grendel terrorizes the Danes every night, killing them and defeating their efforts to fight back. The Danes suffer many years of fear, danger, and death at the hands of Grendel. Eventually, however, a young Geatish warrior named Beowulf hears of Hrothgar’s plight. Inspired by the challenge, Beowulf sails to Denmark with a small company of men, determined to defeat Grendel.

Hrothgar, who had once done a great favor for Beowulf’s father Ecgtheow, accepts Beowulf’s offer to fight Grendel and holds a feast in the hero’s honor. During the feast, an envious Dane named Unferth taunts Beowulf and accuses him of being unworthy of his reputation. Beowulf responds with a boastful description of some of his past accomplishments. His confidence cheers the Danish warriors, and the feast lasts merrily into the night. At last, however, Grendel arrives. Beowulf fights him unarmed, proving himself stronger than the demon, who is terrified. As Grendel struggles to escape, Beowulf tears the monster’s arm off. Mortally wounded, Grendel slinks back into the swamp to die. The severed arm is hung high in the mead-hall as a trophy of victory.Overjoyed, Hrothgar showers Beowulf with gifts and treasure at a feast in his honor. Songs are sung in praise of Beowulf, and the celebration lasts late into the night. But another threat is approaching. Grendel’s mother, a swamp-hag who lives in a desolate lake, comes to Heorot seeking revenge for her son’s death. She murders Aeschere, one of Hrothgar’s most trusted advisers, before slinking away. To avenge Aeschere’s death, the company travels to the murky swamp, where Beowulf dives into the water and fights Grendel’s mother in her underwater lair. He kills her with a sword forged for a giant, then, finding Grendel’s corpse, decapitates it and brings the head as a prize to Hrothgar. The Danish countryside is now purged of its treacherous monsters.The Danes are again overjoyed, and Beowulf’s fame spreads across the kingdom. Beowulf departs after a sorrowful goodbye to Hrothgar, who has treated him like a son. He returns to Geatland, where he and his men are reunited with their king and queen, Hygelac and Hygd, to whom Beowulf recounts his adventures in Denmark. Beowulf then hands over most of his treasure to Hygelac, who, in turn, rewards him.In time, Hygelac is killed in a war against the Shylfings, and, after Hygelac’s son dies, Beowulf ascends to the throne of the Geats. He rules wisely for fifty years, bringing prosperity to Geatland. When Beowulf is an old man, however, a thief disturbs a barrow, or mound, where a great dragon lies guarding a horde of treasure. Enraged, the dragon emerges from the barrow and begins unleashing fiery destruction upon the Geats. Sensing his own death approaching, Beowulf goes to fight the dragon. With the aid of Wiglaf, he succeeds in killing the beast, but at a heavy cost. The dragon bites Beowulf in the neck, and its fiery venom kills him moments after their encounter. The Geats fear that their enemies will attack them now that Beowulf is dead. According to Beowulf’s wishes, they burn their departed king’s body on a huge funeral pyre and then bury him with a massive treasure in a barrow overlooking the sea.